Perennial Philosophy And Science Of The Soul - 1230 Words

Introduction To comprehend the contours of perennial philosophy and to better understand how to interpret reality properly, it would be necessary to look into what Joseph Cardinal Ratzinger would suggest in order to establish a proper hermeneutics of interpreting the Scriptures. This paper will briefly discuss the areas of natural epistemology followed by analogy and participation and finally, Divine and human agency and the life of virtue. It will conclude by incorporating a summarization of the three areas into what Cardinal Ratzinger’s â€Å"Erasmus Lecture† hoped in hearing reality in light of modern views. The challenge for Ratzinger in understanding the proper interpretation of the Bible would derive from a â€Å"new freedom of thought which the Enlightenment had advanced† being encountered in today’s modern era. Natural Epistemology Etymologically speaking, psychology is the science of the soul. Following Aristotle’s view of what would belong to the science of the soul, a proper definition for psychology would be â€Å"the living being in so far as it is the principle of vital activities, in particular regarding those beings endowed with immanent activity or the power to move themselves, considered as such.† St. Thomas believed that psychology should be defined with respect to vital activity as a whole, understanding the distinction of living and nonliving is more basic than that of conscious and non-conscious. Aristotle develops his ideas using reason as a purelyShow MoreRelated The Rise Of Christianity Essay1320 Words   |  6 PagesThe rise of Christianity in philosophy One influential cult was based upon a mystical interpretation of Plato. Neo-Platonism was like a rational science that attempted to break down and describe every aspect of the divine essence and its relationship with the human soul. An Alexandrian Jew named Philo tried using Greek philosophy to interpret the Jewish scriptures. He wanted to unite the two traditions by suggesting that the Greek philosophers had been inspired by the same God who had revealedRead MoreEssay on Changing Conceptions About What Emotion is939 Words   |  4 Pagesimmemorial, former sages and ancient scholars have initiated continuous discussion about it. A. A brief history of emotion before 19th century. Early stage of research about emotion can be represented roughly by Aristotelian western philosophy and Confucian eastern philosophy. 1) Aristotelian European philosophers’s opinion Before 20th century, people tend to have more qualitative and intuitive opinions about emotion; their social, culture and historical enviroments strongly influenced their theoriesRead MoreCritique of Jean Watsons Theory1312 Words   |  6 Pagesexpression of feelings and to experience those feelings for oneself’ (Walker, 1996, p. 992). It is much more than a scripted therapeutic response, it is a moral duty that rises from within the nurse, and Watson identifies nursing as both an art and a science. The first premise of this theory is that the more individual the feelings are, that the nurse transmits, the more strongly does the caring process affect the recipient (Walker, 1996). The two persons in a caring transaction are both in the processRead MoreViews of Swami Vivekananda in the Field of Education.2060 Words   |  9 Pageswhich purports to expound and analyze Vivekananda’s views on education, an endeavor has been made to focus on the basic theme of his philos ophy, viz. the spiritual unity of the universe. Whether it concerns the goal or aim of education, or its method of approach or its component parts, all his thoughts, we shall observe, stem from this dormant theme of his philosophy which has its moorings in Vedanta. A sculptor has a clear idea about what he wants to shape out of the marble block; similarly, a painterRead MoreReading Gandhi- Delhi University3075 Words   |  13 Pagesproviding the blue print of all kinds of revolutions. Though Gandhi wrote extensively, Hind Swaraj was his earliest text, in which he questioned the accepted myths and the truths of his times. The text is not only a tract on political methodology, philosophy or political movements; it is a statement of faith. Therefore, its relevance goes much beyond the time frame in which it was written. Gandhi wrote this short tract in 1909 originally in Gujarati on a return voyage from London to South AfricaRead MorePhilosophers and Scientists in Psychology2420 Words   |  10 Pagesproposed that not only body can influence mind, but that mind could also affect body. Renà © Descartes was a famous mathematician born in Touraine, France on March 31, 1596. Descartes was said to be the father of modern philosophy for his works in the fields of math, science and philosophy. At the age of 8 he attended the Royal College at La Flà ¨che where he was educated as a Jesuit scholar. The king established this school, which was a Jesuit college that was for the young nobility. At this point he hadRead MoreKant And Kant s Philosophy2023 Words   |  9 Pagesabout the wonders of the human perception. Through the power of imagination in the human mind Kant was able to postulate possible answers to the great questions of existence. He was daring and bold to wonder what constitutes the beauty of the human soul, how the existence of an all-powerful entity would be possible, and also what do human beings really do to perceive their surroundings. With such notable works as Critiques of Practical Reason, Metaphysics of Morals, and Critique of Judgement, KantRead Mor eMahatma Gandhi : The Hero Of The Indian Independence Struggle1723 Words   |  7 Pagesstrictly following even one of these values in one’s life, they will become a good person, and â€Å"Bad Karma† can be avoided. Mahatma Gandhi, originally named Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, says he was recognised and received the title â€Å"Mahatma† (meaning great soul) by following 2 of these virtues. He practiced â€Å"Ahimsa†-- meaning non violence of one s actions, words, and thoughts-- and â€Å"Satya†-- meaning truth. Mahatma Gandhi’s autobiography, titled The Story of My Experiments with Truth, is written completelyRead MoreThe Debate Over The Ontological Status Of The Good1843 Words   |  8 Pagesteaching to the classroom, he took to the streets of Athens to meet people and pupils in familiar converse showing himself as ready to learn as to teach. The method he used in teaching is now known as the Socrates method. According to Socrates, philoso phy is an ethical practice and an ethical need – that is the need to know and to be aware of one’s self and to develop as God intended: moving towards divinity (Olney, 1980). Correspondingly, Socrates says that knowledge is inborn. Virtue likewise isRead MoreEssay about The Role of Science, Ethics, and Faith in Modern Philosophy3606 Words   |  15 PagesThe Role of Science, Ethics, and Faith in Modern Philosophy ABSTRACT: Curiously, in the late twentieth century, even agnostic cosmologists like Stephen Hawking—who is often compared with Einstein—pose metascientific questions concerning a Creator and the cosmos, which science per se is unable to answer. Modern science of the brain, e.g. Roger Penroses Shadows of the Mind (1994), is only beginning to explore the relationship between the brain and the mind-the physiological and the epistemic

Book Summary, Notes, and Study Guide for Frankenstein

Frankenstein  was originally written by English author,  Mary Shelley (1797- 1851). Its complete title is  Frankenstein: or, the Modern Prometheus. It was first published anonymously in London on January 1, 1818. The second edition, under Shelleys name, was published in 1823.  A third  edition,  which included  a preface by Shelley and tribute to her late husband  who drowned in 1822, was published in 1831.  The book is a  Gothic novel  and  has also been called the first  science fiction  novel.   Author Mary Shelley was born in London August 30, 1797. She  developed the story of Frankenstein while on a summer trip to Switzerland in 1816  when she was twenty years old and  was traveling with her then married lover, Romantic poet  Percy Bysshe Shelley.   The story arose out of a competition between herself, Percy Shelley and their companions, Lord Byron and Byrons physician, John William Polidori, to write a tale about a supernatural occurrence. Mary initially struggled with an idea, but eventually, through listening to conversations between Percy and Lord Byron about attempts to reanimate corpses, current news stories, a dream, her imagination and own life experiences, a story emerged. According to Francine Prose, author of the introduction to a new illustrated  Frankenstein: or, The Modern Prometheus, in the New Republic: One night, still puzzling over Byron’s assignment and trying to sleep, Mary had a vision in which she saw â€Å"the pale student of unhallowed arts kneeling beside the thing he put together. I saw the hideous phantasm of a man stretched out, and then, on the working of some powerful engine, show signs of life and stir with an uneasy, half-vital motion.† She lay awake, trying to imagine a story that would frighten the reader as much as she had been frightened, then realized that she had found it. â€Å"What terrified me will terrify others; and I need only describe the spectre which had haunted my midnight pillow. On the morrow I announced that I had thought of a story,† and set herself to making â€Å"a transcript of the grim terrors of my waking dream.†Ã‚   The book,  Frankenstein, was completed almost a year after their trip to Switzerland. Shortly after the  trip to Switzerland, Percy Shelleys pregnant wife committed suicide. Mary and Percy married soon thereafter, in 1818, but Marys life was marked by death and tragedy. Marys half-sister committed suicide soon after the trip to Switzerland, and Mary and Percy had three children who died in infancy before Percy Florence was born in 1819.   Setting The story begins in the icy northern waters where a captain is traveling to the North Pole. Events take place throughout Europe, in Scotland, England, and Switzerland. Characters Victor Frankenstein: The Swiss chemist who creates the monster. Robert Walton: The sea captain who rescues Victor from the ice. The Monster: The ugly creation of Frankenstein, who searches for companionship and love throughout the story. William: Victors brother. The monster murders William to punish Victor and sets the stage for more tragedy and torment for Victor. Justine Moritz: Adopted and loved by the Frankenstein family, Justine was convicted and executed for killing William. Plot Rescued by the sea captain, Frankenstein relays events that begin as he pieces together a man using old body parts. Once he manages to create the horrible being, however, Frankenstein regrets his action immediately and flees his home. When he returns, he finds the monster is gone. Shortly after, Frankenstein hears that his brother has been murdered. A series of tragic events follow as the monster searches for love  and Frankenstein suffers the consequences of his immoral act. Structure The novel is a frame story with a three-part structure. The Creatures story is the core of the novel, which is presented to us framed by Victor Frankensteins story, which in turn is framed by Robert Waltons narrative. Possible Themes This book raises many compelling themes and thought-provoking questions and is as relevant today as it was two-hundred years ago. The search for love reflects a strong theme in Shelleys own life. The monster knows he is horrid and will never be loved, although he attempts to find love several times. He is constantly rejected and disappointed. Frankenstein, himself, searches for happiness through love, but he meets with the tragic loss of several loves. Mary Shelley was the daughter of Mary Wollstonecraft, who was an early feminist.  Tragic, weak, women are portrayed in the story -- Frankenstein actually begins to make a second female monster, to provide companionship for his own first creation, but he then destroys it and dumps the remains in a lake; Frankensteins wife dies tragically, as does the accused Justine—but is this because Shelley actually believes women are weak or does their subjugation and absence send a different message? Perhaps it is because female autonomy and power are perceived as a threat to the male characters. Without the presence and influence of women, everything that is important to Frankenstein is destroyed in the end. The novel also speaks to the  nature of good and evil, what it means  to be human  and to  live morally.  Ã‚  It  confronts us with our  existential fears  and  explores the boundary between life and death. It causes us  to reflect on the limits and  responsibilities of scientists  and scientific inquiry, and to think about what it means  to play God, addressing human emotion and hubris. Resources and Further Reading How Frankensteins Monster Became Human, The New Republic,  https://newrepublic.com/article/134271/frankensteins-monster-became-human Its Alive! The Birth of Frankenstein,  National Geographic, https://www.nationalgeographic.com/archaeology-and-history/magazine/2017/07-08/birth_of_Frankenstein_Mary_Shelley/ Monstrosity and Feminism in Frankenstein, Electrastreet, https://electrastreet.net/2014/11/monstrosity-and-feminism-in-frankenstein/

Mgt7019-1 Different Perspectives of Drucker, Friedman and...

Abstract The purpose of this week’s assignment was to read three peer reviewed/scholarly journals and compare and contrast each author’s ethical perspective. The articles were: What is Business Ethics by Peter F. Drucker, 1981, The Social Responsibility of Business is to Increase its Profits by Milton Friedman, 1970 and The Relevance of Responsibility to Ethical Business Decisions by Patrick E. Murphy, 2010. Ethical Perspectives of Friedman, Drucker and Murphy Peter F. Drucker is known as the man who invented management. Drucker wrote many books on management and influenced the way business and industry thinks about management. â€Å"Peter F. Drucker was a writer, professor, management consultant†¦show more content†¦Drucker recommends the adoption of the five key concepts of Confucian ethics: â€Å"-clear definition of the fundamental relationships; -universal and general rules of conduct-that is, rules that are binding on any one person or organization, according to its rules, function, and relationships; -focus on right behavior rather than on avoiding wrongdoing, and on behavior rather than on motives or intentions; and finally, -an effective organization ethic, indeed an organization ethic that deserves to be seriously considered as ethics, will have to define right behavior as the behavior which optimizes each party’s benefits and thus makes the relationship harm onious, constructive, and mutually beneficial† (Drucker, pp. 35, 36). Several unforeseen problems exist with rule based ethics. These rules do not cover every scenario, and there may be pre-existing rules which overshadow or conflict with the rules. Individuals interpret rules in different ways, as was the case in the article with the lady who stole to feed her children as opposed to someone stealing just to be stealing. The second paper we will discuss is: â€Å"The Social Responsibility of Business is to Increase its Profits† by Milton Friedman, 1970. In order to understand the paper, we must first know who Milton Friedman was. â€Å"Milton Friedman played three roles in the

How Does Code Affect Our Lives - 1442 Words

The first is the way to go of development itself. This just implies an animal groups experiences hereditary change after some time. That is, over numerous eras an animal categories can develop into something very distinctive, and those distinctions depend on changes in the DNA, which begin as mutations.The second portion of transformative hypothesis is the real trick of gradualism. It takes numerous eras to deliver a generous transformative change, for example, the advancement of winged creatures from reptiles. The following two precepts are flip sides of the same coin. While there are numerous living species, every one of us you, me, the elephant, and the pruned prickly plant offer crucial attributes. Among these are the biochemical pathways that we use to create vitality, our standard four-letter DNA code, and how that code is perused and deciphered into proteins. This lets us know that each species backtracks to a solitary normal predecessor, a progenitor who had those regular characteristics and passed them on to its relatives. Be that as it may, if development implied just continuous hereditary change inside an animal varieties, we d have stand out species today a solitary exceedingly advanced relative of the principal species. However we have numerous: well more than ten million species occupy our planet today, and we know of a further quarter million as fossils. Life is different. How can this assorted qualities emerge from one hereditary structure? This requiresShow MoreRelatedA Study Of Human Social Relationships And Organisations Essay1691 Words   |  7 Pagesthe family to the state, diversity of race and social class to the beliefs in common cultures. The study of soc iology is to understand how human action and consciousness both shape and are shaped by surrounding cultural and social structures. Sociology you do not realise how much the subject covers and it explains important matters in our own personal lives, our communities and the world. At personal level, sociology looks at the social causes and consequences of such things as racial and genderRead MoreThe Code Of Hammurabi : How Does It Differ From The Past?1716 Words   |  7 PagesWhat is History? How does it differ from the past? These questions are asked by almost every Historian at some point in time. This essay will use the Code of Hammurabi to show that the actual past that historian attempt to obtain is not as important as the way it effects daily life, which creates history as we know it. It will look at the discrepancy between who created the document and who actually wrote it, the difference between why a document is important and why it survives, how the intent of theRead More School Dress Codes By Krystal Miller948 Words   |  4 Pages Ever thought that not having a school dress code could lead to violence over something so simple as to what a person might own or wear? To many people s surprise, school dress codes can be a very important topic to discuss at any and every public school. This essay will summarize, critique, and evaluate the article School Dress Codes by Krystal Miller. During the time period that the article was written, violence was beginning to become an issue in many large, urban cities. In Krystal MillerRead MoreThe And Controversial Ethical Conflicts1057 Words   |  5 Pagesof the most significant and controversial ethical conflicts in this novel occurs in the final section, probing the issue of suicide. A nuclear test has occurred and many people were badly injured by the blasts and radiation. Abbot Zerchi must decide how the church will respond to the affected people. A medical group called Green Star wishes to set up units in the abbey to treat the radiation victims. The church faces a problem because Green Star, in cases where radiation exposure is terminal, recommendsRead MoreSchool Dress Codes814 Words   |  4 PagesSchool dress codes have been a prominent topic of discussion the past few years. Largely, young girls and some school board members are fighting against these sexist codes that govern schools across the world today. Dress codes target young women by stating they should dress appropriately so they do not distract the male students. This leads to men thinking it’s acceptable to disrespect women, and also women feeling like what they wear is more important than their academics. This results in a numberRead MoreThe Genetic Disorder of Down Syndrome1238 Words   |  5 Pagesand many doctors still don’t even know what to call them. Some don’t even know they have a disease in them till its too late, or other know all there lives and some learn to live with the disease and others live every day in fear of getting even more sick and hurt. Genetic disorders are very common some more than others. Its all has to do with our 46 chromosomes. Genetic disorders can occur to anyone. Many people believe genetic disorders only happen to those who have family cases with genetic disordersRead MoreGender Discrimination And Its Effects On Children s Behavior And Personality1508 Words   |  7 Pagesnot give historical female figures enough credit for their accomplishments, dress codes that punish girls for their body’s at the risk of the male education, and gender stereotypes placed in schools that have a strong influence on children s behavior and personality. Some may argue against this claim by arguing that women are not given credibility in history books because of their treatment in the past, dress codes are placed to stop distracting boys, or that the treatment of children in schoolsRead MoreThe Church Of Jesus Christ Of Latter Day Saints Essay1514 Words   |  7 Pagesnon-affiliate of the Church of Jesus Christ of L atter-day Saints, posted a critique of the patriarchal influence on Mormonism and how it affects the role of women in the church. Sheri L. Dew, a current member of the church that serves as the Relief Society General President, gave a speech was published on the Church’s official website. In this speech, Dew describes how Mormonism empowers women and emphasize the importance of their role. When analyzing conflicting sources, it is crucial to analyzeRead MoreFacial Hair Essay1342 Words   |  6 Pagesfacial hair in our school, for some reasoning outside the realm of even our principal, the issue is a heinous act punishable to the fullest extent. Facial hair is a form of self expression and self identification in a young man’s life. When we see half the male population, and the ones we look up to have facial hair. It becomes a social construct in our lives that in essence affects how we see ourselves. It can create a self confidence in one who before had none. With this in mind our school has enforcedRead MoreJean Paul Sartre : Philosophy And The Existence Of God1516 Words   |  7 Pagesborn with a purpose, everything is random until he creates his essence due to sentient acts. Due to the belief that God does not exist, man is forced to choose and have free will. Sartre explains in Being and Nothingness, that â€Å"I am condemned to be free† (Part 4, chapter 1). By this statement Sartre is urging individuals to reject the idea that there is an authoritative moral code created by a God that provides rules and specific ways of living to achieve goals. This belief can make the act of decision

Disciples Are Created Free Essays

â€Å"So God created man in his image. † Man was given dominion over all creation and paradise for his sustenance and enjoyment. But to whom much is given, much is likewise asked. We will write a custom essay sample on Disciples Are Created or any similar topic only for you Order Now The forbidden fruit from the Tree of Knowledge proved to be too difficult for Man to resist. That cost Man the loss of his paradise and banishment from heaven, in complete shame. He had truly fallen. God sent his Only Son to redeem Man. Jesus walked the earth and preached about God. From fishermen to a tax collector, Jesus created his own, chosen set of disciples. He said, â€Å"I did not come to call the righteous but sinners. † He had instructed them to continue His work when He has gone back to the Father. â€Å"Go, therefore, and make disciples from all nations. † Jesus died on the cross for Man. Man had sinned but Jesus led Man back to the Father. He had set the example for Man to follow. True discipleship is following God’s example of never giving up on Man’s fallibility. It is helping Man to rise from iniquity and taking the righteous path. His followers had betrayed Him like Judas and denied Him like Peter, yet He had it in His heart to forgive. He proclaimed, â€Å"Truly, I say to you, every sin will be forgiven humankind †¦Ã¢â‚¬  Whatever one’s status in life is, he may be made into a disciple. Simon Peter and Andrew were fishermen and Matthew was a tax collector. A disciple made from God’s own image follows His example. God forgave sin against Him. So must the disciple. The positive influence of God’s example to my personal ministry is to accept sinners and give them the second chances they need. How to cite Disciples Are Created, Papers

Spies free essay sample

The purpose of this essay is to determine if the British elites were deliberately promoting the public mind in favour of war against Germany by the use of spy novels, or have the British people shaped their own minds by keen interest in stories of espionage. This will be determined by examining the books Spies of Kaiser: Plotting the Downfall of England and The Invasion of 1910 with the full account of the siege of London by William Le Queux, Official Secret Act 1911, and few other sources in relation to this agenda. The essay supports that the public pro war mood was shaped by elite of Britain to gain more control, power and wealth. Before going further into presenting arguments, analysis, and evidence, the important background information about the author of the key sources needs to be examined. William Le Queux was author in late 19th and early 20th century who established the genre of future war fiction and spy novels (Oxford DNB, 2006). We will write a custom essay sample on Spies or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page His most influential works were ‘The invasion of 1910’ series, and Spies of Kaiser: Plotting the Downfall of England, which in a sense were responsible for the creation of Secret Service Bureau (ibid. . In his novels the hero was usually cosmopolitan, wealthy, adventurous, mysterious, and opportunist – all the qualities which he aspired in his own lifestyle due profits from his successful writings (ibid. ). The following is a description of Ray Raymond they key hero in the Spies of Kaiser: Plotting the Downfall of England â€Å"†¦Ray Raymond, the pipe-smoking elder son of a wealthy English family, who is currently practising as a barrister in London, having completed his studies at Oxford University† (Queux, 1996). However in reference to Roger T. Stearn the author of his biography â€Å"Le Queux’s own accounts of his life are unreliable, and little is known definitely† (Oxford DNB, 2006. ). Even thou in the introduction of his book Spies of Kaiser: Plotting the Downfall of England he claims that he writes facts, and the only fiction is the change of dates and names (Queux, 1996). In accordance to Le Queux own account he is well travelled and has good knowledge of police forces, criminology and is a spy hunter himself (Clarke, 1997). However Roger T. Stearn also claims that he was influential â€Å"Before and during the war, although criticized, Le Queux had been influential†¦Ã¢â‚¬ . In addition I. F. Clarke claims that Le Queux had friends among generals and even members of the parliament (Clarke, 1997). This information leads to suggest that the British elite could have used him as a tool to manipulate the publics’ view on Germany. As it was mentioned before Le Queux had friends in the parliament, and indirectly and without sufficient evidence it is possible that his spy novels has helped to create the Official Secrets Act 1911. Briefly the act states that alleged spy can be accused, prosecuted and convicted without actually showing any evidence of espionage (Swarb, 2006). The novels of Le Queux was creating the illusion of the common reader that German spies are all around Britain, which led for public to demand stronger security, therefore the government took advantage of the momentum to pass this legislation, which acquired them more power and control. I. F. Clarke supports the idea that the spy stories were used to manipulate public opinion â€Å"†¦the tale of imaginary warfare provided a remarkable means of estimating the rate of change in European attitudes to war during the nineteenth century (Clarke, 1967). Even though the just listed evidence suggest that the British people opinion on war and Germany was shifted ‘from above’, it is also understandable that the change of the mood was due to popular enthusiasm of the remarkable spy novels. It leads to the examination of factors which awakened public enthusiasm. Both The Invasion of 1910 with full account of the siege of London and Spies of Kaiser: Plotting the Downfall of England by William Le Queux are very detailed, possible in theory, and patriotic novels. Each novel is filled with existing roads, streets, hotels, and cities’ names, which are spread not only all over Britain, but also Germany, France, Russia, Poland and other countries. For instance here Ray Raymond, the key hero of Le Queux’s book Spies of Kaiser: Plotting the Downfall of England gives the directions â€Å"’We’re going down to Maldon, in Essex,’ Ray Raymond explained as we drove along in taxi-cab to Liverpool Street Station late one grey snowy afternoon soon after our return from Norfolk† (Queux, 1996). This gives a reader something to relate, and a spark of imagination that enemy spies might be cutting the telegraph wires, filling ammunition storages, or trying to explode the train or bridge next to his home in his village or city. People might start looking at every foreigner, and especially German with suspicion, and even the innocent action by them might look like some sort of espionage. In addition as it was mention previously the lifestyle of enemy spy hunters seems very attractive, and of keen purpose, which is to protect the motherland from invading foes. Therefore the reader might want the piece of that life, the life of James Bond and becomes an amateur spy hunter himself, as it was witnessed by Britain in early 20th century.

Criticism of Ecotourism free essay sample

Ecotourism (also known as ecological tourism) is responsible travel to fragile, pristine, and usually protected areas that strives to be low impact and (often) small scale. It purports to educate the traveller; provide funds for conservation; directly benefit the economic development and political empowerment of local communities; and foster respect for different cultures and for human rights. Ecotourism is held as important by those who participate in it so that future generations may experience aspects of the environment relatively untouched by human intervention. Most serious studies of ecotourism including several university programs now use this as the working definition. Definitional problems and greenwashing Part of the problem, a clear definition must delineate what is, and is not, ecotourism. Ideally, ecotourism satisfies several general criteria, including the conservation of biological diversity and cultural diversity through ecosystem protection, promotion of sustainable use of biodiversity, share of social-economic benefits with local communities through informed consent and participation, increase in environmental and cultural knowledge, affordability and reduced waste, and minimization of its own environmental impact. [5][6] In such ways, it contributes to the long term benefits to both the environment and local communities. However, in the continuum of tourism activities that stretch from conventional tourism to ecotourism proper, there has been a lot of contention to the limit at which biodiversity preservation, local social-economic benefits, and environmental impact can be considered ecotourism. For this reason, environmentalists, special interest groups, and governments define ecotourism differently. Environmental organizations have generally insisted that ecotourism is nature-based, sustainably managed, conservation supporting, and environmentally educated. 5][9] The tourist industry and governments, however, focus more on the product aspect, treating ecotourism as equivalent to any sort of tourism based in nature. [5] As a further complication, many terms are used under the rubric of ecotourism. [5][5] Nature tourism, low impact tourism, green tourism, bio-tourism, ecologically responsible tourism, and others have been used in literature and marketing, although they are not necessary synonymous wi th ecotourism. [5] The problems associated with defining ecotourism have led to confusion among tourists and cademics alike. Definitional problems are also subject of considerable public controversy and concern because of green washing, a trend towards the commercialization of tourism schemes disguised as sustainable, nature based, and environmentally friendly ecotourism. According to McLaren,[5] these schemes are environmentally destructive, economically exploitative, and culturally insensitive at its worst. They are also morally disconcerting because they mislead tourists and manipulate their concerns for the environment. 10] The development and success of such large scale, energy intensive, and ecologically unsustainable schemes are a testament to the tremendous profits associated with being labeled as ecotourism. [edit]Negative impact of tourism Ecotourism has become one of the fastest-growing sectors of the tourism industry, growing annually by 10-15% worldwide (Miller, 2007). One definition of ecotourism is â€Å"the practice of low-impact, educational, ecologically and culturally sensitive travel that benefits local communities and host countries† (Honey, 1999). Many of the ecotourism projects are not meeting these standards. Even if some of the guidelines are being executed, the local communities are still facing other negative impacts. South Africa is one of the countries that are reaping significant economic benefits from ecotourism, but negative effects including forcing people to leave their homes, gross violations of fundamental rights, and environmental hazards far outweigh the medium-term economic benefits (Miller, 2007). A tremendous amount of money is being spent and human resources continue to be used for ecotourism despite unsuccessful outcomes, and even more money is put into public relation campaigns to dilute the effects of criticism. Ecotourism channels resources away from other projects that could contribute more sustainable and realistic solutions to pressing social and environmental problems. â€Å"The money tourism can generate often ties parks and managements to eco-tourism† (Walpole et al. 2001). But there is a tension in this relationship because eco-tourism often causes conflict and changes in land-use rights, fails to deliver promises of community-level benefits, damages environments, and has plenty of other social impacts. Indeed many argue repeatedly that eco-tourism is neither ecologically nor socially beneficial, yet it persists as a strategy for conservation and development (West, 2006). While several studies are being done on ways to improve the ecotourism structure, some argue that these examples provide rationale for stopping it altogether. The ecotourism system exercises tremendous financial and political influence. The evidence above shows that a strong case exists for restraining such activities in certain locations. Funding could be used for field studies aimed at finding alternative solutions to tourism and the diverse problems Africa faces in result of urbanization, industrialization, and the over exploitation of agriculture (Kamuaro, 2007). At the local level, ecotourism has become a source of conflict over control of land, resources, and tourism profits. In this case, ecotourism has harmed the environment and local people, and has led to conflicts over profit distribution. In a perfect world more efforts would be made towards educating tourists of the environmental and social effects of their travels. Very few regulations or laws stand in place as boundaries for the investors in ecotourism. These should be implemented to prohibit the promotion of unsustainable ecotourism projects and materials which project false images of destinations, demeaning local and indigenous cultures. [edit]Direct environmental impacts Ecotourism operations occasionally fail to live up to conservation ideals. It is sometimes overlooked that ecotourism is a highly consumer-centered activity, and that environmental conservation is a means to further economic growth. 11] Although ecotourism is intended for small groups, even a modest increase in population, however temporary, puts extra pressure on the local environment and necessitates the development of additional infrastructure and amenities. The construction of water treatment plants, sanitation facilities, and lodges come with the exploitation of non-renewable energy sources and the utilization of already limited local resources. [12] The conversion of natural land to such tourist infrastructure is implicated in deforestation and habitat deterioration of butterflies in Mexico and squirrel monkeys in Costa Rica. 13] In other cases, the environment suffers because local communities are unable to meet the infrastructure demands of ecotourism. The lack of adequate sanitation facilities in many East African parks results in the disposal of campsite sewage in rivers, contaminating the wildlife, livestock, and people who draw drinking water from it. Aside from environmental degradation with tourist infrastructure, population pressures from ecotourism also leaves behind garbage and pollution associated with the Western lifestyle. 14] Although ecotourists claim to be educationally sophisticated and environmentally concerned, they rarely understand the ecological consequences of their visits and how their day-to-day activities append physical impacts on the environment. As one scientist observes, they rarely acknowledge how the meals they eat, the toilets they flush, the water they drink, and so on, are all part of broader regional economic and ecological systems they are helping to reconfigure with their very activities. [5] Nor do ecotourists recognize the great consumption of non-renewable energy required to arrive at their destination, which is typically more remote than conventional tourism destinations. For instance, an exotic journey to a place 10,000 kilometers away consumes about 700 liters of fuel per person. [15] Ecotour ism activities are, in of itself, issues in environmental impact because they disturb fauna and flora. Ecotourists believe that because they are only taking pictures and leaving footprints, they keep ecotourism sites pristine, but even harmless sounding activities such as a nature hike can be ecologically destructive. In the Annapurna Circuit in Nepal, ecotourists have worn down the marked trails and created alternate routes, contributing to soil impaction, erosion, and plant damage. [5] Where the ecotourism activity involves wildlife viewing, it can scare away animals, disrupt their feeding and nesting sites,[5] or acclimate them to the presence of people. [5] In Kenya, wildlife-observer disruption drives cheetahs off their reserves, increasing the risk of inbreeding and further endangering the species. [5] [edit]Environmental hazards This article is written like a personal reflection or essay and may require cleanup. Please help improve it by rewriting it in an encyclopedic style. (December 2007) The industrialization, urbanization, and unsustainable agriculture practices of human society are considered to be having a serious effect on the environment. Ecotourism is now also considered to be playing a role in this depletion. While the term ecotourism may sound relatively benign, one of its most serious impacts is its consumption of virgin territories (Kamuaro, 2007). These invasions often include deforestation, disruption of ecological life systems and various forms of pollution, all of which contribute to environmental degradation. The number of motor vehicles crossing the park increases as tour drivers search for rare species. The number of roads has disrupted the grass cover which has serious effects on plant and animal species. These areas also have a higher rate of disturbances and invasive species because of all the traffic moving off the beaten path into new undiscovered areas (Kamuaro, 2007). Ecotourism also has an effect on species through the value placed on them. â€Å"Certain species have gone from being little known or valued by local people to being highly valued commodities. The commodification of plants may erase their social value and lead to overproduction within protected areas. Local people and their images can also be turned into commodities† (West, 2006). Kamuaro brings up a relatively obvious contradiction, any commercial venture into unspoiled, pristine land with or without the â€Å"eco† prefix as a contradiction in terms. To generate revenue you have to have a high number of traffic, tourists, which inevitably means a higher pressure on the environment. [edit]Local people Most forms of ecotourism are owned by foreign investors and corporations that provide few benefits to local communities. An overwhelming majority of profits are put into the pockets of investors instead of reinvestment into the local economy or environmental protection. The limited numbers of local people who are employed in the economy enter at its lowest level, and are unable to live in tourist areas because of meager wages and a two market system. [5] In some cases, the resentment by local people results in environmental degradation. As a highly publicized case, the Masai nomads in Kenya killed wildlife in national parks to show aversion to unfair compensation terms and displacement from traditional lands. 16] The lack of economic opportunities for local people also constrains them to degrade the environment as a means of sustenance. [5] The presence of affluent ecotourists encourage the development of destructive markets in wildlife souvenirs, such as the sale of coral trinkets on tropical islands and animal products in Asia, contributing to illegal harvesting and poaching from the environment. In Suriname, sea turtle reserves use a very large portion of their budget to guard against these destructive activities. [edit]Displacement of people One of the most powerful examples of communities being moved in order to create a park is the story of the Masai. About 70% of national parks and game reserves in East Africa are on Masai land (Kamuaro, 2007). The first undesirable impact of tourism was that of the extent of land lost from the Masai culture. Local and national governments took advantage of the Masai’s ignorance on the situation and robbed them of huge chunks of grazing land, putting to risk their only socio-economic livelihood. In Kenya the Masai also have not gained any economic benefits. Despite the loss of their land, employment favours better educated workers. Furthermore the investors in this area are not local and have not put profits back into local economy. In some cases game reserves can be created without informing or consulting local people, who come to find out about the situation when an eviction notice is delivered (Kamuaro, 2007). Another source of resentment is the manipulation of the local people by their government. â€Å"Eco-tourism works to create simplistic images of local people and their uses and understandings of their surroundings. Through the lens of these simplified images, officials direct policies and projects towards the local people and the local people are blamed if the projects fail† (West, 2006). Clearly tourism as a trade is not empowering the local people who make it rich and satisfying. Instead ecotourism exploits and depletes, particularly in African Masai tribes. It has to be reoriented if it is to be useful to local communities and to become sustainable (Kamuaro, 2007). [edit]Threats to indigenous cultures Ecotourism often claims that it preserves and â€Å"enhances† local cultures. However, evidence shows that with the establishment of protected areas local people have illegally lost their homes, and most often with no compensation (Kamuaro, 2007). Pushing people onto marginal lands with harsh climates, poor soils, lack of water, and infested with livestock and disease does little to enhance livelihoods even when a proportion of ecotourism profits are directed back into the community. The establishment of parks can create harsh survival realities and deprive the people of their traditional use of land and natural resources. Ethnic groups are increasingly being seen as a â€Å"backdrop† to the scenery and wildlife. The local people struggle for cultural survival and freedom of cultural expression while being â€Å"observed† by tourists. Local indigenous people also have strong resentment towards the change, â€Å"Tourism has been allowed to develop with virtually no controls. Too many lodges have been built, too much firewood is being used and no limits are being placed on tourism vehicles. They regularly drive off-track and harass the wildlife. Their vehicle tracks criss-cross the entire Masai Mara. Inevitably the bush is becoming eroded and degraded† (Kamuaro, 2007). [edit]Mismanagement While governments are typically entrusted with the administration and enforcement of environmental protection, they often lack the commitment or capability to manage ecotourism sites effectively. The regulations for environmental protection may be vaguely defined, costly to implement, hard to enforce, and uncertain in effectiveness. [17] Government regulatory agencies, as political bodies, are susceptible to making decisions that spend budget on politically beneficial but environmentally unproductive projects. Because of prestige and conspicuousness, the construction of an attractive visitors center at an ecotourism site may take precedence over more pressing environmental concerns like acquiring habitat, protecting endemic species, and removing invasive ones. [5] Finally, influential groups can pressure and sway the interests of the government to their favor. The government and its regulators can become vested in the benefits of the ecotourism industry which they are supposed to regulate, causing restrictive environmental regulations and enforcement to become more lenient. Management of ecotourism sites by private ecotourism companies offers an alternative to the cost of regulation and deficiency of government agencies. It is believed that these companies have a self interest in limited environmental degradation, because tourists will pay more for pristine environments, which translates to higher profit. However, theory indicates that this practice is not economically feasible and will fail to manage the environment. The model of monopolistic competition states that distinctiveness will entail profits, but profits will promote imitation. A company that protects its ecotourism sites is able to charge a premium for the novel experience and pristine environment. But when other companies view the success of this approach, they also enter the market with similar practices, increasing competition and reducing demand. Eventually, the demand will be reduced until the economic profit is zero. A cost-benefit analysis shows that the company bears the cost of environmental protection without receiving the gains. Without economic incentive, the whole premise of self interest through environmental protection is quashed; instead, ecotourism companies will minimize environment related expenses and maximize tourism demand. [5] The tragedy of the commons offers another model for economic unsustainability from environmental protection, in ecotourism sites utilized by many companies. [18] Although there is a communal incentive to protect the environment, maximizing the benefits in the long run, a company will conclude that it is in their best interest to utilize the ecotourism site beyond its sustainable level. By increasing the number of ecotourists, for instance, a company gains all the economic benefit while paying only a part of the environmental cost. In the same way, a company recognizes that there is no incentive to actively protect the environment; they bear all the costs, while the benefits are shared by all other companies. The result, again, is mismanagement. Taken together, the mobility of foreign investment and lack of economic incentive for environmental protection means that ecotourism companies are disposed to establishing themselves in new sites once their existing one is sufficiently degraded.